Literacy Matters Vol. 23 Winter 2023

level thinking to become classroom dialogue. Increased verbal interactions among students that encourage the use of new terms can assist students with applying the terms appropriately and adding them to their vocabularies long-term. One way to increase dialogue when working on vocabulary development is by using word sorts. Word sorts encourage students to analyze words as they group them into categories and require conversations based on word parts and word knowledge as they justify placement to peers when completed as a group activity (Sigmon et al., 2022). In looking at the study terms listed earlier, the following terms could be used in a short word sort to check for understanding: leaves, sprout, water, seedling, sunlight, soil, and roots. If given these terms, students could work to sort each term into one of two categories: plant parts and plant needs. These word sort group activities can be differentiated to create more of a challenge, such as the open categorical sort (Sigmon et al., 2022), in which students are not told the category titles and begin by sorting, then creating labels as part of the group activity. This is one example of how the earlier terms could be used within a classroom activity focused on increasing student dialogue with new vocabulary. Suggestions for effective vocabulary instruction:

tier 3 terms and note instructional suggestions based on the utility value of the terms. Their definitions are similar to those of Beck et al. (2013). However, regarding content-area texts, they explain that while tier 3 words “can help build understanding of broader concepts, they are rarely encountered in the daily life of most educated people, and are likely to be looked up when needed” (p. 180). Based on the nature and increased utility value across domains for tier 2 words, Daniels and Zemelman (2014) suggest we be “providing robust instruction in the powerful, conceptual, and discipline-crossing Tier 2 words” (p.180) even within our content-area classrooms/lessons. Again, this notes that vocabulary choice and instruction may differ between language arts lessons as opposed to content-area lessons. Suggestions for choosing vocabulary terms: • Identify the lesson’s learning objective(s) in relation to vocabulary. Is vocabulary development the • Consider how the term relates to conceptual understanding. Is the term necessary to create a broader understanding of a topic? What associations with other words are necessary or could be of assistance? • Consider the instructional time allocated for vocabulary instruction. How many words are appropriate/reasonable? What learning activities can be completed during the allotted time, such as group work, individual practice, and multiple exposure? Suggestions for Vocabulary Instruction Burkins and Yates (2021) highlight the need for “building and extending both intentional and incidental classroom conversations” (p. 24) as a way to support language comprehension and allow students the opportunity to apply knowledge as they articulate ideas and understandings. Within classroom conversations, they also note the importance of asking quality questions requiring higher-level thinking and then providing wait time so students can process, formulate, and share ideas. This idea of requiring students to use higher order thinking has been discussed and utilized in education for decades, partially guided by Bloom’s Taxonomy (Bloom, 1956) and the revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). These models have led to visuals, expectations, and resources such as question stems for teachers to implement questions that elicit higher-order thinking. The idea shared by Burkins and Yates (2021) highlights the need for this higher learning outcome, or is vocabulary development a necessary component of concept development? • Consider the utility value of each term. What is this term’s usefulness within and outside the immediate context of the lesson?

Literacy Matters General Articles

• Include opportunities for students to use terms in conversation.

• Ask questions that require the use of terms and higher-order thinking to respond.

• Provide graphic organizers/visual aids as a concrete representation of associations between terms. Conclusion

Vocabulary instruction should be intentional and explicit. The choice of terms and approach to instruction may differ based on the content and learning objective. Both the choice of terms and approach may also differ based on the use of fictional texts during language arts instruction as opposed to informational texts used during content-area instruction. Beck et al. (2013) discussed many articles confirming the word gap from an early age with specific groups of students and even that this gap has been shown to persist over time once established; however, they also note that this could be the result of a need for more research related to vocabulary development and effective vocabulary instruction during the school years. Knowing that first- grade vocabulary predicts reading achievement in later years (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1997), it is also clear that this explicit vocabulary instruction must start early. As educators, we can continue to learn new ways to introduce and teach vocabulary robustly as we work to grow the oral and written vocabularies of students in all subject areas and at all ages.

Literacy Matters | Volume 22 • Winter 2023 | 35 |

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