Literacy Matters Vol. 23 Winter 2023

part of effective vocabulary instruction; however, working to find associated words and ways of implementing this idea requires differentiating based on what is developmentally appropriate. Moving forward, as teachers and researchers, we must approach vocabulary development, instruction, and assessment differently based on many variables. Those variables include but are not limited to the learning objective being taught, whether we are using fictional or informational texts, the background knowledge of our students, and our students’ stage of spelling development. With these variables and more, we can at least look at current research, articles, and resources available to determine general guidelines for choosing vocabulary terms and suggestions for vocabulary instruction. Suggestions for Choosing Vocabulary Terms One of my favorite professional development texts for vocabulary instruction has always been Bringing Words to Life (Beck et al., 2013). Now in the second edition, the book includes an entire chapter near the beginning of the text devoted to choosing which words to teach. They note that “many words that support general language and literacy do not comprise an organized system in which certain words precede others conceptually” (p. 21). This reinforces the understanding that students’ oral language development can differ significantly based on personal environments and experiences. These differences in students’ oral language vocabularies must be considered since oral language is foundational to reading comprehension. Beck et al. (2013) also noted that establishing sequenced stages for acquiring specific vocabulary terms may not lend itself to a sequenced developmental structure because “our brains are not wired to acquire words in any given sequence” (p. 20). Within the same discussion, they note that content area terms may be hierarchical in nature and therefore require a different approach. This connects to the earlier notion that how vocabulary instruction is approached while reading rich literature during language arts time will most likely differ from our approach during content-area lessons with academic texts, including discipline-specific terminology. In teaching content-area vocabulary, there are two key arguments. One push is to continue to focus on tier 2 terms because they have higher utility value. Utility value refers to a term’s perceived usefulness. On the other hand, students are unlikely to understand content-area topics with proficiency without direct, explicit instruction on tier 3 terms that appear more frequently in informational texts are less likely to have prior connections with students. With these varying views of the terms that should become the focus of content-area lessons, it is clear that considering terms and the approach based on that classification could be helpful in determining the instructional decisions related to vocabulary development.

new terms and ideas to existing knowledge and connecting existing vocabulary and new terms with similar word parts. For example, the word seed may be identified as tier 1; however, using this word in instruction to teach the term seedling could help because of the apparent similarity in word structure and, in turn, word meaning. Although not listed in the state resource materials, similar words such as sapling could assist during instruction so that students can note the similarity between seedlings and saplings in word parts, definitions, and images. Also, both seed and seedling are Anglo-Saxon in word origin. Providing this type of word analysis could also help develop a better understanding of words within a unit and discuss the keyword roots that are used related to a specific topic. Learning the word origins could assist with spelling patterns within words and allow for easier decoding as students encounter these complex terms in their content-area reading. Instructional Suggestions Overall, providing effective vocabulary instruction is a complex task. We must first determine the learning objective for the lesson. How vocabulary instruction is approached while reading rich literature during language arts time will most likely differ from our approach during content-area lessons with academic texts, including discipline-specific terminology. This means the choice and teaching of vocabulary will vary from the language arts part of the day to the math, science, or social studies part. With the terms and context of the tiered activity shared, derivational relations would assist in providing instruction related to these terms. Derivational relations refers to the word knowledge of analyzing a term by recognizing the base/root word and meaning associated with that word part. Students can then learn various prefixes and suffixes to create related words as they extend their vocabulary and develop the language skills required to alter a term’s part of speech or connect like terms based on common word parts. An example of this from the word list in the study would include teaching the words germinate and germination. Both terms help discuss the growth of a plant; however, one is a verb and the other a noun. Using these terms in context can deepen students’ understanding and use of the term. For example, a teacher may use phrases such as the germination process, as the seed germinates, the germination period, and to germinate more quickly. Theoretically, using derivational relations within this example would assist in explaining and deepening vocabulary knowledge with students based on the word germinate. With that said, the terms of this study were taken from first-grade resources, and Bear (2021) notes the derivational relations stage as relevant for grades 5-12. Again, Bear notes within the chapter at several places that word study related to domain-specific terms or academic vocabulary and texts have differing approaches or research on instruction and prior exposure that could alter the general discussion and outline within the chapter related to vocabulary development and instruction with reading literature (fiction). In conclusion, teaching common word parts and the ability to identify base/root words in assisting in determining meaning is

Literacy Matters General Articles

In discussing academic vocabulary specifically, Daniels and Zemelman (2014) define and provide examples of tier 2 and

| 34 | Literacy Matters | Volume 22 • Winter 2023

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