Literacy Matters Vol. 23 Winter 2023

approaching texts, critically examining them, extracting personal meaning, and acting upon their resultant conclusions (Fordman, Wellman, & Sandman, 2002; McLaughlin & DeVoogd, 2020). The C3 Framework In 2013, the National Council for Social Studies (NCSS) published the College, Career, and Civic Life Framework (C3). Along with assisting in developing state standards, the C3 Framework focused on the social studies skills, concepts, and disciplinary tools that students should learn to be successful in adult life (NCSS, 2013). Central to the Framework is the Inquiry Arc, a theoretical and pedagogical blueprint for developing and delivering sound social studies instruction. There are four dimensions to the Inquiry Arc: developing questions and planning inquiries, applying disciplinary concepts and tools, evaluating sources and using evidence and communicating conclusions, and taking action. For students to communicate text-based conclusions, they must be provided with, and ultimately develop themselves, rich, diverse, and critical questions. The first step in moving students from deferential to reactionary readers is responding to the questions teachers ask. Questioning Reactions Sound social studies instruction is premised on inquiry. It moves beyond the often- ubiquitous descriptors of who (or when or where) and asks the most seminal question in social studies: why? Lennon (2017) defines the why as an ill-fitted (or open ended) question that naturally spurs a discourse rich in opinion. There is no“wrong answer,”per se – only opportunities for student engagement rooted in reaction. Such rich, complex, and challenging questions increase text comprehension and support student voice (Juzwik et al., 2015; Stevens et al., 2020). Questioning has proven to be particularly beneficial for facilitating student participation in the social studies classroom (Allen, 2018; Grant, Swan, & Lee, 2017; Mueller, 2016) as it mitigates deference by encouraging reaction. Though there are numerous ways in which students can react to reading (e.g., orally, visually, physically, technologically, etc.), we will specifically focus on the importance of questions, specifically how pre-reading questioning, context questioning, and questioning the author, and how they can facilitate text based engagement (reaction) in the social studies classroom. Pre-reading questioning In the social studies classroom, little (if any) contextual background is given to students as they approach text. Students are often asked just to read. Asking pointed questions before reading allows students to create connections to prior knowledge. It also allows students (and teachers) an opportunity to identify where gaps in understanding or experience may exist. Just as important, the text –its content (what is to be covered) and its purpose (why is the text important) – is introduced through a series of questions. At its heart, pre-reading questioning introduces key background information, piques student interest, and facilitates increased text comprehension and classroom participation (Thomas & Vannatta Reinhart, 2014). Below are pre-reading prompts and questions that can be used to spur student engagement.

rooted in critical literacy. However, there needs to be a distinction made between critical literacy and reactionary reading. Critical literacy is a philosophical theory and a pedagogical approach that accentuates the often unequal political, economic, historical, and sociocultural forces that influence and shape how students interpret and approach meaning-making (Soares &Wood, 2010; Wolk, 2003). It allows readers to become critically conscious of their values and societal responsibilities (Larson & Marsh, 2015; Ciardiello, 2004). Critical literacy aims to raise student awareness of and responsiveness to issues pertinent to them and, ultimately, prompts students to ask, “why and for what reason are things the way they are” (Soares &Wood, 2010, p. 487). Most importantly, critical literacy encourages students to bring their own lived experiences into the discussion. Though reactionary reading certainly implies a foundation premised on critical literacy, the core tenet of reactionary reading involves action. Such action – or reaction – can come in the form of rich discussion whereby points are raised, perspectives shared, and critical, constructive dialogue ensues (Juzwik et al., 2015). Reactionary reading also supports an action-based response whereby students do something with text-driven interpretations and conclusions. There is much research linking classroom-based literacy to social justice (Boyd, 2017; Dover, 2016; Sealey-Ruiz, 2019; Selvester & Summers, 2015). Social justice literacy is the knowledge, skills, and ability to understand, through classroom-based literacy exposure, the root causes of social injustice and, ultimately, to challenge it (Breunig, 2019; Comber, 2015; Skerrett, 2010). Implied in the challenge is a reaction, specifically activism. Crisco (2009) argues that activist literacy is inherently rooted in the democratic ideals of questioning and civic action. Civic action can be as simple as raising one’s hand, signing a petition, or voting. Alternatively, they may be more concerted as running for elected office, starting a non-profit organization, or assuming key leadership positions. These ideals, and their resultant actions, are central to sound social studies instruction. The strategic (and savvy) use of rich reading and writing opportunities can – and should – lead to student-led social action (Caffrey & Rogers, 2018). Reactionary reading asks students to respond to what they have read and put such responses into action. Implementing Reactionary Reading in the Social Studies Classroom Implementing reactionary reading in the social studies classroom is an entirely different philosophical and pedagogical approach than having students be technically literate. Teachers of reactionary reading stress that texts have more than one meaning, and varied perspectives are both sought and valued. They also stress that action is key to putting reactions (perspectives) in motion. However, such“reactivity”does not happen overnight. Teachers must allow students time to rethink (or relearn) how to approach text. Teachers must provide students with latitude in how they put their reactions into action. Moreover, teachers must provide students with a cognitive template for

Literacy Matters General Articles

| 28 | Literacy Matters | Volume 22 • Winter 2023

CLICK HERE TO RETURN TO TABLE OF CONTENTS