TheVirginiaJournal_SpringSummer2024

The Virginia Journal

SPRING-SUMMER 2024

Vol. 45, No.1

Photo Credit: Dr. Michael Moore, Radford University

Virginia AHPERD Members,

It is my pleasure to serve as the editor of The Virginia Journal (TVJ) and Communicator. Enclosed you will find the Spring-Summer 2024 issue. I hope to continue the successful publications of TVJ and Communicator. However, the success of TVJ and the Communicator only go as far as the members and our submissions. I ask that you continue to submit the quality work you have in the past. Let the state, region and nation know the outstanding work we are doing in Virginia AHPERD. So, this is my continued call for manuscripts for the next issue of TVJ and news information for the Communicator. The TVJ and Communicator depend on the submissions from our exceptional professionals working in the field. So please continue to e-mail me your manuscripts and news by January 15 and July 15 as a Word attachment for the two publications. Please follow the manuscript guidelines posted in each issue of TVJ. My contact information is below.

Sincerely, Michael Moore, PhD, LAT, ATC Radford University Professor, HHP Clinical Coordinator, ATP mbmoore@radford.edu 540-831-6218

About Virgina AHPERD

Mission Statement Virginia AHPERD is a professional association of educators that advocate quality programs in health, physical education, recreation, dance and sport. The association seeks to facilitate the professional growth and educational practices and legislation that will impact the profession. Virginia AHPERD Values • Excellence in teaching, research and educational practices in HPERD and related professions • Positive efforts to promote our disciplines • Professional integrity and high ethical standards • Effective communication within and between members and related professionals • An active and healthy lifestyle • Embracing the role of special and diverse populations

Virginia AHPERD Priorities Member Services Communication Marketing and Promotion Education

Visit Virginia AHPERD’s Web Site www.vahperd.org

Learn About:

Membership Publications Resources Links Forms

Virginia AHPERD Leadership Divisions Students Awards and Grants

The Virginia Journal Editorial Board

T able of C ontents

Jamie Best Avita Health System Robert Case Old Dominion University Rodney Gaines Virginia Tech Melissa Grim Radford University Kenny Harrah Warm Hearth Village Jay Johnson Virginia Military Institute Brandon Kimble Virginia State University Matthew D. Lucas Longwood University April Moore Dublin Elementary

Volume 45, Number 1

Spring-Summer 2024

Tips for Assessing in Physical Education .............................................................2 Rhythmic Movement for Children with Disabilities in PE ..................................5 A Shifting Youth Sports Landscape: Effects on Athletes with Disabilities ..........7 Benefits of Physical Education for Students with Dysgraphia ...........................10 Tactical Games Approach in Physical Education ...............................................12 (Reprint from Spring 2022)

Guidelines for Manuscript Submission ..............................................................16

Michael Moore Editor Radford University

Executive Director Maria McKeown

Virginia AHPERD President - Danielle Christian President-Elect - Sean Niehoff Past President - Donna Wilbur

The opinions of the contributors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the attitude or views of Virginia AHPERD, its officers, or the editor of this Journal. Virginia AHPERD does not discriminate in this or any other of its programs on the basis of color, religion, age, gender, national origin, sexual orientation, disability or handicap.

SPRING-SUMMER 2024 • Virginia AHPERD • 1

Tips for Assessing in Physical Education Lindsey Slaughter, MAT, is a recent graduate of the PHETE program in the Department of Kinesiology at James Madison University, Harrisonburg, Virginia Dr. Cathy McKay , Associate Professor of Kinesiology, PHETE Program; James Madison

Figure 1 The Assessment Cycle

Assessment is a crucial tool in physical education because it helps track students’ growth, gives the field the credibility it deserves, and helps teachers to adjust and realign their teaching to make sure the students are receiving the best instruction possible (Brookhart, 2013). There are multiple kinds of assessments: pre- and post-assessments, formative, summative, and others. Formative assessments are continuous throughout a unit to check for student understanding of the topic. Summative assessments occur at the end of a unit to allow the teacher to see a summary of student’s progress and comprehension. Unfortunately, there are obstacles to implementing assessments, such as lack of time, disruptive classroom environments, and access to resources (McKenzie & Lounsbery, 2009). The focus of this article is to offer physical education professionals tips for assessing within their classes. These tips are not listed in order of importance, but rather are a guide for implementing continuous assessments into a physical education class. Tip One: Look at Assessment as a Cycle When it comes to assessment, it helps to look at and use assessment as a cycle (Hushman et al., 2021). The goal of the assessment cycle is to track students’ growth over a unit. As indicated in Figure 1, the assessment cycle collects data in four ways: pre-assessment, self-assessment, peer observation, and post-test (Hushman et al., 2021). Pre-assessments occur at the beginning of a unit, so the teacher knows where students are before beginning the lessons. Self-assessments and peer observation are utilized during the lesson and give students feedback on their performance and skills from their own point of view or another student’s point of view. To use these assessments, students must know the cues they are looking for, how they should be performed, and the procedures for assessing themselves or another student. Self and peer assessments are used for three main reasons: the teacher can continue managing student behavior and provide specific feedback, the teacher can continue addressing other students needs during the assessment, and the students can take responsibility for the assessment, helping the teacher meet the affective domain (Hushman et al., 2021). There are four things to keep in mind when using a self or peer assessment. The first thing to keep in mind is student grouping. Students who demonstrate a higher level of friendship to one another may give each other higher scores, which interferes with the true results of the assessment (Hushman et al., 2021). Teachers should choose groups or partners wisely to help ensure authentic results. Second, teachers should train students on how to use the assessment. Training might include practice opportunities, such as where the teacher writes the rubric on the

board, then performs the skill while leaving out a critical cue, seeking to assess if the students can pinpoint the missing cue, and then facilitating a discussion where students look at the rubric and give feedback (Hushman et al., 2021). The third thing to keep in mind is to start with a small rubric, only looking for one or two cues, then progress to the larger and final rubric. Teachers should use terms that students are familiar with and give them chances to ask questions. When creating a rubric, be sure to identify a very good performance and a performance that needs significant improvement first, then build the middle levels. The fourth and final thing to keep in mind includes utilizing stations when giving an assessment. In this scenario, one station is the assessment, and the other stations are practice opportunities before reaching the assessment station. Teachers should demonstrate each station to students, and ensure that the assessment can be done in one day or class period. As educators, we use this cycle of different assessments to find evidence of student growth throughout the unit, which is critical to providing feedback to the student and teacher in terms of student learning and progress (Hushman et al., 2021). Tip Two: Create, Practice, and Utilize Assessments Creating, practicing, and utilizing assessments incorporates tip two, offering practical examples for teachers to utilize. The first example is a peer assessment hit map for net and barrier games. In this assessment, students are in pairs and one student is hitting the ball over the net and the observer marks a spot on the map of where the ball landed. This helps the student performing see where they are consistent and where they are missing with their shots. Teachers should place personal reflection questions at the end for the performer to reflect on their performance and

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take ownership of their learning. Mapping shot placement helps the student and the teacher see the player’s ability of accuracy for whichever shot they are performing. These maps can also allow the teacher to see where their instruction needs to go in the future, for example, if no one can hit a shot down the line, they may want to give students’ more activities that focus on hitting to targeted spots. The second example is a heat map for territorial and invasion games requiring dribbling. These maps show where students tend to dribble, run, pass, or receive the ball during gameplay. Once again, students are in pairs, one student performing, and one assessing. The teacher creates a map of the perimeter and goals of the playing area. The student assessing will draw lines of where the student ran and use different markings to show where a student caught or passed the ball. These maps also help teachers differentiate between students who truly participate in gameplay versus those who run up and down the court without getting involved, who we call ‘competent bystanders’ (Chng &Lund, 2021). Teachers should be sure to include reflection questions to help students reflect on their performance and brainstorm ideas on how to improve for next time. Below, in Figure 2, is an example of a heat map, adopted from Chng & Lund (2021).

The final example is a statistics collection for a peer’s performance. Once again, students are in pairs and collect data on their partner’s performance. For example, how many successful passes they made, how many baskets or shots they made, landed them in a designated zone, or how many passes they complete. This assessment is used with skills that can be quantified. When using each of the assessment tools mentioned in this tip, it is recommended to make sure the observer is only recording one person at a time and a limited number of actions or cues (Chng & Lund, 2021). In addition, Chng and Lund (2021) recommend to always be sure the observer is in a safe space, out of the way, but not too far, so they can see the skill being performed. Tip Three: Help Students Learn from Their Assessments Providing students with meaningful feedback can greatly enhance their learning and achievement (Stenger, 2014). Assessments are more beneficial when they provide feedback to students on their performance, ways to grow, and what they may want to do differently in the future. Taking an assessment and not receiving any feedback is not beneficial to students because they do not get the chance to understand where they went wrong, what the teacher was looking for, and how to improve. This tip introduces three strategies educators can use to help students learn from their assessments. First, teachers should allow students to take a ‘test replay’, which allows them to reflect on the assessment itself, reflect on their preparation, and offer predictions on their performance, allowing them to make the connection between time spent preparing and feelings of confidence (Kesty, 2022). Teachers should encourage a five-to-ten-minute brain dump, allowing students to reflect on any questions, comments, concerns, or surprises they faced during the assessment. This feedback is not only beneficial for the students, but also for the teacher because they can reflect on and potentially adjust their assessment, instruction, and teachings for the future. Second, teachers can use a slow-motion replay. Slow-motion replay occurs after an assessment, when the teacher walks the class through a guided discussion about the most missed questions and reviews them more in-depth, allowing students to think deeper and more critically about their answer choices. This process allows students to have thoughts and emotions attached to their scores (Kesty, 2022). Teachers may also use the time during the guided discussion to offer students the opportunity to defend their answers and explain why they chose what they did. Lastly, have students create new plays. After working through the first two strategies, students may have better ideas on how to prepare for the next assessment (Kesty, 2022). Teachers can allow them to jot their thoughts down and create a new game plan for the next assessment so they feel more confident and prepared. Giving students these opportunities to reflect, discuss, and plan for the next assessment will help build their self-awareness and critical thinking skills (Kesty, 2022).

Figure 2 Heat Map

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Summary Student assessment provides accountability for standards based learning and is a key component of the education process (SHAPE America, 2009). Utilizing developmentally appropriate assessment strategies will help shift perspectives about physical education from, ‘Physical education is where my kid gets their energy out for the day and runs around,’ to ‘My child is learning, growing, and developing in each class in school, including PE.’ Ultimately, the choices teachers make in physical education classes related to assessing student growth and development reflect on the quality of the program. The tips provided in this paper will help teachers implement strong assessments that are meaningful to students and linked to program goals, helping to build a credible, strong, and worthwhile physical education program that documents and showcases students’ learning and growth through the assessment process. References Brookhart, S.M. (2013). Assessing creativity. Educational Leadership, 70 (5), 28-34.

Chng, L., & Lund, J. (2021). Assessment for learning in physical education: Practical tools and strategies to enhance learning of games. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, & Dance , 92 (7), 31–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2021.1948464 Hushman, G., Hushman, C., & Lucero, A. (2021). The assessment cycle: A simple model to capture student growth. Strategies , 34 (5), 13-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/08924562.2021.1948473 Kesty, S. (2022, December 12). Three ways to help students learn from their tests. Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.org/article/3 ways-to-help-students-learn-from-their-tests McKenzie, T.L., & Lounsbery, M.A.F. (2009). Physical education teacher effectiveness in a public health context. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 84 (4), 419-430. Society of Health and Physical Educators (n.d.). Physical Education Position statements . https://www.shapeamerica. org/MemberPortal/advocacy/positionstatements/pe/default. aspx Stenger, M. (2014, August 6). Five research-based tips for providing students with meaningful feedback . Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.org/blog/tips-providing-students meaningful-feedback-marianne-stenger

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Rhythmic Movement for Children with Disabilities in PE AnneMarie Trench , Student, Longwood University Matthew D. Lucas , Ed.D., C.A.P.E., Professor Health, Recreation, & Kinesiology, Longwood University

Teaching students in physical education, including students with disabilities, is often done so by using a Sports Education Model. “The model was created because physical education (PE) classes should not be limited to teaching techniques and tactics from multiple sports”. (Tendinha et al., 2021). In which the overall goal is to teach skills that will lead to the ability to participate in sports (Tendinha et al., 2021). The skills that should be taught are locomotor skills, non-locomotor skills, and manipulative skills (Kovar, 2011). The following chart represents each of these types of skills.

• Rhythms A term that denotes an aspect of a movement quality sometimes thought of as dance. When an individual moves in response to a particular rhythm or music we call the movements RM or rhythms. Structured forms which start cre ative RM are called rhythms. • Rhythmic Activities The physical manifestations of the

mental and emotional response of the individual to rhythm. They are activities which a child responds to physically, socially, and men tally to regular patterns of sound. Rhythmic Activities are also a source of enjoyment for people of all ages. Through these activities, skills and the sense of rhythm are acquired and developed, feelings are expressed, basic principles of time, space and force can be experienced. Most people react to music or rhythm in one form or another. A head swaying, a foot tapping, fin gers snapping, shoulders and body moving while a musical piece is played are physical reactions. Dance refers to movement set to music where there emerges organi zation, structure and pattern. It is a composition that implies arrange ment of parts into a form. Dancing is a means of expressing one’s emotions through movement disciplined by rhythm. It is an act of moving rhythmically and ex pressively to an accompaniment. The word “dancing” came from an old German word “danson” which means to “stretch”. Essentially, all dancing is made up of stretching and relaxing.

• Locomotor Skills

• Jumping • Leaping • Hopping • Balancing • Stretching • Bending

• Non-locomotor Skills

• Manipulative Skills

• Catching • Kicking or rolling a ball • Throwing

According to Merrium-Webster, rhythm means “movement, fluctuation, or variation marked by the regular recurrence or natural flow of related elements” Merriam Webster (n.d., p. 1). Most physical activities have an inherent rhythmic movement (RM) (e.g., locomotor movements and games such as basketball). These activities help sharpen kinesthetic awareness of the body in space and the length of time required to perform the individual components of a movement or skill. Helping students develop rhythm is important since every activity has an underlying rhythmical component. As noted, these activities include locomotor, non-locomotor and ball skills. (Hastie et al., 2005) Rhythmic movement teaches students how to coordinate their body and develop specific muscle groups . The following chart defines Rhythms, Rhythmic Activities, Dance, and Dancing. These elements are closely related to each other. (Holy Name University, 2019, p1). Benefits of Rhythmic Movement In the field of dance or RM, there is certain fundamental knowledge and rhythmic skills considered important for proficiency and efficiency in a variety of bodily movements. (Story, n.d.). One can imagine that there are many benefits of RM for children with disabilities.

• Dance

• Dancing

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Rhythmic movement has benefits for all children and of particular importance to students with disabilities. Benefits of RM specifically include the following: • Gaining and Keeping Attention • Impulse Control

increase in future settings as the individual becomes more comfortable. • Brain exercises – changing the sequencing of the movements such as turning a hoop or rhythm, switching hands on command (e.g., doing the above items but switching to the opposite hand; an example of this would be switching the hand holding the hoop or ribbon on command). Conclusion As noted, RM has been shown to be an effective teaching technique for individuals with disabilities. (Hastie et al., 2005). The authors noted the definition and description of RM as well as the potential benefits of using RM as an instructional technique for students with disabilities. References Hastie, P. A., Martin, E. H., & Gibson, G. S. (2005). Teaching rhythmic movement to children. Teaching Elementary Physical Education , 16 (5), 38–41. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ734017 Holy Name University. (2019). P.E 2 . Physical education http:// hnupe.weebly.com/pe-2.html Kovar, S., Combs, C., Campbell, K., Napper-Owen, G., & Worrell, V. (2011) . Elementary classroom teachers as move- ment educators. McGraw Hill: New York, NY. Merriam Webster. (n.d.). Definition of Rhythm. Www.merriam Webster.com. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ rhythm Story, S. (n.d.). Move play thrive - What is rhythmic movement training? Move Play Thrive. Retrieved February 22, 2024, from https://www.moveplaythrive.com/learn-more/item/what is-rhythmic-movement-training Tendinha, R., Alves, M. D., Freitas, T., Appleton, G., Gonçalves, L., Ihle, A., Gouveia, É. R., & Marques, A. (2021). Impact of sports education model in physical education on students’ motivation: A systematic review. Children , 8 (7), 588. https:// doi.org/10.3390/children8070588

• Emotional Maturity • Sensory Processing • Visual Skills • Speech and Language Development • Brain Connectivity • Physical Strength and Stamina (Story, n.d.)

An example of using RM during physical education to assist children to learn would be an activity as simple as chanting “A, B, Cs” as jumping a rope or jumping up and down. The following list notes other activities involving RM. • Alternating hands and feet in movements – Basic dance movements: step slide, criss cross, plie, grapevine, sashay, moon walk, pirouette, running man, sprinkler, and spin and turn • Using both side of the body in opposition – walking with alternating arms, running with alternating arms, dribbling a basketball with the right and left hand to music, throwing from the right hand to the left hand to music, throwing scarves from the right hand to the left hand with music, and rhythmic gymnastics (RM of arms and legs to music while using items such as a hoop, ball, clubs, ribbon and rope.) • Cross-midline movements – Two hands catching on both sides of the body (crossing the midline), rhythmic gymnastics (RM of arms and legs to music while using items such as a hoop, ball, clubs, ribbon and rope.) • Duration of exercise – The duration of the activity should start short and be closely monitored. The duration should

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A Shifting Youth Sports Landscape:Effects on Athletes with Disabilities John Scheevel , M.S., Health Education Teacher/Coach, Century Middle School, Lakeville, MN

Abstract Youth sports can provide many benefits to those who partake in them. This is especially true for children with disabilities, a growing population in the U.S., as they have an increased need not currently being met for physical activity and social development. However, the current shifting youth sports landscape which has become more professionalized has made participation in youth sports for individuals with disabilities more difficult. This article analyzes several key areas in which current youth sports trends are having especially negative impacts on athletes with disabilities, including the rising cost of sport participation, the increase in elitism in youth sports, and the lack of proper training for youth sports coaches. Introduction The benefit of youth sport has been well documented. It provides the opportunity for young athletes to participate in health-enhancing physical activity while also developing social and psychological development (Côté et al., 2007). One population for which these opportunities and benefits are especially important is young athletes with disabilities. Evidence from multiple studies has shown that children with disabilities are at greater risk of being obese than their non-disabled peers (Bandini et al., 2015; Rimmer et al., 2007). It has also been found that “youth with disabilities spend a similar amount of time in light-intensity physical activity, but less time in moderate and vigorous-intensity physical activity than their peers” (Jung et al., 2018, p. 394). Youth sport provides a prime opportunity for these young people to engage in moderate and vigorous physical activity to improve their health outcomes. Not only does it improve physical health outcomes, it also provides important social development for students with disabilities. Students with disabilities have been reported to participate in fewer social activities than their typically developing peers and have substantially and significantly fewer friends than those typically developing peers as well (Taheri et al., 2016). Provided the opportunity, sports can greatly impact the overall well-being of individuals with disabilities. At the same time that the need for youth sports opportunities for individuals with disabilities is growing, as there was a 9.5% increase in the prevalence of developmental disabilities in children in the years spanning from 2009-2017 and currently approximately 1 in 6 children in the U. S. have a developmental disability (Zablotsky et al., 2019), there has been a large shift in the youth sports landscape. Youth sport has become more professionalized, which has had ripple effects across the youth sports landscape and raised a variety of issues including the cost of play, elitism, and a lack of coaching preparation. This shift has had a damaging effect on overall youth sport participation, but especially for individuals with disabilities. This article

will discuss how the current issues of cost of play, elitism, and coaching preparation in youth sports specifically impact individuals with disabilities. The topics discussed are intended to generate awareness for those hoping to create a positive impact and change in the youth sports experiences provided to athletes with disabilities. Discussion Cost of Play One of the large shifts in youth sports in the last several years has been the increasing cost to play. According to the Aspen Institute (2019), “On average, families spend $693 per child for one sport each year” (p.2). Another study found that the percentage of annual family income spent on their child’s sport ranged from 3% to 12% (Baxter-Jones et al., 2003). While this may be an expense that families with the economic means can afford, this creates a major obstacle to participation for those of lower socioeconomic status. The percentage of children ages 6 to 12 who played a sport regularly from households with incomes under $25,000 is 21.6% compared to 42.7% for those children who come from households with incomes of $100,000+ (Aspen Institute, 2019). While the cost of sports is a problem for all young athletes hoping to participate in sports, it disproportionately affects children with a disability. “Children with a disability are often born into low-income families; however, it has also been reported that families who care for children [sic] with a disability often find themselves sliding towards poverty” (Anderson et al., 2007, p. 4). The cost of caring for a child with a disability carries with it the monetary burden in some cases “exceeding 5% to up to 12% of families’ incomes and with net costs of up to $8,000 a year” (Anderson et al., p. 14). The combination of the cost of raising a child with a disability, the likelihood of students with disabilities being from low-income households, and the rising cost of athletic participation create a significant barrier to participation for athletes with disabilities. Elitism In recent years, sports programs have become increasingly elitist and institutionalized (De Knop et al., 1996 as cited in Cô té et al., 2006; Jayanthi et al., 2013). This rise in elitism is a large factor in the previously discussed rising cost of participating in youth athletics. With the rise in elitism in youth sports has also come an increased focus on competition and winning. This increased focus on winning and competition becomes a large barrier to participation in sports for individuals with disabilities as this high-level competition and emphasis on winning make it much less desirable for coaches or sports directors to accommodate youth with disabilities (Moran et al., 2010). If coaches are not in support of or desiring to accommodate

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youth with disabilities, there is little hope that these athletes then participate in youth sports, as coaches' “attitudes towards accommodating individuals with specific needs and their abilities in handling inclusion resistance are critical determinants of successful inclusion” (Tsai et al., 2009, p. 164). However, this elitism and its influence on children with disability and their ability to participate in youth sports is not only limited to coaches and sports directors. Many parents of children with higher athletic skills also dissuade the inclusion of youth with disabilities in community sports programs to ensure their child excels in sports (Moran et al., 2010). While many children with disabilities may never have sought to be on an elite team, even more, recreational opportunities are dwindling due to the increased elitism of youth sports. According to the Aspen Institute’s 2015 report, “The flight to travel (and to the for-profit club) teams thins rosters and the number of teams that can be created… By the end of grade school, in some areas, in-town leagues in sports like soccer and basketball have lost enough participants that they are no longer viable” (p. 19). While individuals with disabilities may be able to find an opportunity to play in special sports programs, such as Special Olympics, the loss of in-town and recreational leagues often leaves children with disabilities with little or no options in rural or inner-city communities where funding, facilities, and experienced coaches are limited for these types of programs (Kleinert, et al., 2007). Coaching Coaching plays a large role in the overall athlete experience in sports. Given the large role a coach plays, the quality of a coach is crucial in ensuring positive experiences for athletes. Coaching education is one way to help coaches develop into quality coaches who can provide enjoyable and meaningful sports experiences. However, “less than 30% of youth coaches have been trained in the past year” (Aspen Institute, 2019, p. 2). This current trend of having untrained youth sports coaches is especially damaging for athletes with disabilities. Very few coaches have the pedagogical skills or would know where to look for resources to better serve an athlete with a disability unless that coach was or is a teacher (Vargas et al., 2019). As a result, athletes who do have a disability and are participating in youth sports may not receive instruction that demonstrates an understanding of the characteristics associated with their disability (Vargas et al., 2019). Some parents, as a result of coaches’ negative attitudes and discriminatory behaviors due to a lack of knowledge and understanding of athletes with disabilities, quickly give up on finding inclusive opportunities for their children (Tsai et al., 2009). Conclusion In conclusion, the discussion provided in this paper served to generate awareness for those hoping to create a positive impact and change in the youth sports experiences provided to athletes with disabilities. This paper discussed several key areas in which current youth sports trends are having especially negative

impacts on those athletes with disabilities, including the rising cost of sport participation, the increase in elitism in youth sports, and the lack of proper training for youth sports coaches. Working towards solving these problems that currently face youth sports will help create not only a more positive experience for children with disabilities but all children. References Anderson, D., Dumont, S., Jacobs, P., & Azzaria, L. (2007). The personal costs of caring for a child with a disability: A review of the literature. Public health reports, 122 (1), 3–16. doi:10.1177/003335490712200102 Aspen Institute (2015). Sport for all, play for life: A playbook to get every kid in the game. https://www.aspeninstitute.org/ wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Aspen-Institute-Project-Play Report.pdf Aspen Institute (2019). State of play 2019 . https://www. aspeninstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/2019_SOP_ National_Final.pdf Bandini, L., Danielson, M., Esposito, L. E., Foley, J. T., Fox, M. H., Frey, G. C., Fleming, R. K., Krahn, G., Must, A., Porretta D. L., Rodgers, A. B., Stanish, H., Urv, T., Vogel, L. C., & Humphries, K. (2015). Obesity in children with developmental and/or physical disabilities. Disability and Health Journal , 8 (3), 309-316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dhjo.2015.04.005 Baxter-Jones, A. D. G. & Maffulli, N. (2003). Parental influence on sport participation in elite young athletes. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 43 , 250-255. https://www. researchgate.net/publication/10667773_Parental_influence_ on_sport_participation_in_elite_young_athletes Cô té , J. & Fraser-Thomas, J. (2006). Youth sports: Implementing findings and moving forward with research. Athletic Insight, 8 (3), 12-27. Cô té , J. & Fraser-Thomas, J. (2007). Youth involvement in sport. In P.R.E. Crocker (Eds.), Sport psychology: A Canadian perspective (266-294). https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/43501529_Youth_involvement_in_sport C t , J. & Strachan, L. & Fraser-Thomas, J. (2016). Participation, personal development and performance through youth sport. In N.L. Holt, (Eds.), Positive youth development through sport (34 45). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292809657_ Participation_personal_developmede_and_performance_ through_youth_sport Jayanthi, N., Pinkham, C., Dugas, L., Patrick, B., & Labella, C. (2013). Sports specialization in young athletes: evidence based recommendations. Sports health , 5 (3), 251–257. https:// doi.org/10.1177/1941738112464626 Jung, J., Leung, W., Schram, B. M., & Yun, J. (2018). Meta analysis of physical activity levels in youth with and without disabilities. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 35 , 381 – 402. doi:10.1123/apaq.2017-0123 Kleinert, H. L., Miracle, S., & Sheppard-Jones, K. (2007). Including students with moderate and severe intellectual disabilities in school extracurricular and community recreation

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activities. Intellectual and developmental disabilities , 45 (1), 46– 55. doi:10.1352/1934-9556(2007)45[46:ISWMAS]2.0.CO;2 Moran, T. E. & Block, M. E. (2010). Barriers to participation of children with disabilities in youth sports. TEACHING Exceptional Children 6 (3), Article 5. https://files.eric.ed.gov/ fulltext/EJ879597.pdf Rimmer, J. H., Rowland, J. L., & Yamaki, K. (2007). Obesity and secondary conditions in adolescents with disabilities: Addressing the needs of an underserved population. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41 , 224-229. doi:10.1016/j. jadohealth.2007.05.005 Taheri, A., Perryl, A., & Minnes, P. (2016). Examining the social participation of children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities and autism spectrum disorder in relation to peers. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 60 , 435–443. doi: 10.1111/jir.12289

Tsai, E. H. & Fung, L. (2009). Parents’ experiences and decisions on inclusive sport participation of their children with intellectual disabilities. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 26 , 151-171. doi:10.1123/apaq.26.2.151 Vargas, T. M., Flores, M.M., Beyer, R. & Weaver, S. M. (2019). Parents’ perceptions of coaching behaviors toward their child with a hidden disability in recreational youth sports. The Physical Educator, 76 , 661-675. doi:10 Zablotsky, B., Black, L. I., Maenner, M. J., Schieve, L. A., Danielson, M. L., Bitsko, R. H., Blumberg, S. J., Kogan, M. D., & Boyle, C. A. (2019). Prevalence and Trends of Developmental Disabilities among Children in the United States: 2009-2017. Pediatrics , 144 (4), e20190811. https://doi. org/10.1542/peds.2019-0811

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Benefits of Physical Education for Students with Dysgraphia AnneMarie Trench , Student, Longwood University Anne-Hamilton Leroy , BS, MBA Matthew D. Lucas , Ed.D., C.A.P.E., Professor, Health, Recreation, & Kinesiology, Longwood University

The active participation of a student with Dysgraphia in physical education can often be rewarding for the student with the disorder. These benefits can be both physical and academic. This manuscript will focus on the academic benefits. It will address common characteristics of students with Dysgraphia and present basic solutions to improve the experience of these students in this setting. Initially, the definition, causes, characteristics, and prevalence of Dysgraphia will be presented. The article will then address possible academic benefits of physical education for children with Dysgraphia and methods to possibly achieve these benefits. Definition of Dysgraphia Dysgraphia is a neurological condition and learning disability in which someone has difficulty with writing as compared to same-age peers. This can range from issues with the physical act of writing to issues with translating thoughts into written words. Dysgraphia is manageable with interventions that can help the individual learn new writing strategies (Cleveland Clinic, 2020). The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) states that children who have been diagnosed with disabilities receive special education if the condition negatively affects the educational performance of the child. Children with Dysgraphia, who almost certainly are affected academically, should receive special education services under Specific Learning Disability (SLD). The following definition of SLD is defined in IDEA (2007). Specific Learning Disability is defined in IDEA (2017) as “a communication disorder, such as stuttering, impaired articulation, a language impairment, or voice impairment that adversely affects a child’s educational performance” (Sec. 300.8 (c)(11)). Through experience the authors have observed that physical education teachers are often not involved in the Individualized Education Programs for children with learning disabilities. One should remember that Dysgraphia is a learning disability, and physical education teachers, as observed by the authors, are often not asked to give feedback or assessments to the team. They often do not provide goals specific to physical education. They should be involved. This can only enhance the total education of the child. Causes, Characteristics, and Prevalence of Dysgraphia There is a genetic link to the disorder, but no specific cause has been determined. According to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (2023), causes of Dysgraphia can possibly stem from parietal lobe damage in the brain. In terms of characteristics of potential cognitive deficits,

research has shown that attention; visual and auditory processing; working memory; and logical thinking are all potential characteristics of individuals with the condition (LDA, 2023). Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA) (LDA, 2023, pp 1) lists the following possible impacts of Dysgraphia on children: • Legibility of handwriting • Remembering how to write specific letters or numbers • Efficiency and speed of writing • Functioning as far as planning and organizing According to the National Library of Medicine, between 10%- 30% of children are affected by dysgraphia (Chung et al., 2020). Academic Benefits for Children with Dysgraphia in the Physical Education Setting The academic benefits of physical education are potentially high for all children. The physical education teacher can arrange activities to address a variety of academic benefits, and these can include writing and memory recall techniques for a student with Dysgraphia which are included below. These activities can still be implemented while following a general physical education curriculum. The educator should always remember that success can lead to confidence which can cross-over into other subject areas. Potential Characteristics of Dysgraphia and the following recommendations, developed by the authors, include the following for each previously noted characteristic for the Physical Education Setting

Potential Characteristics

Recommendations

of Dysgraphia Legibility of handwriting • Physical education teachers

can have students keep orga nized, legible, records of fit ness scores. An example can be provided to each student. • Physical education teachers can work on fine motor skills, to address efficiency and speed of writing. • Physical education teachers can have students display let ters and numbers with their bodies.

Remembering how to write specific letters or

numbers

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Conclusion The participation of a student with Dysgraphia in physical education can be academically rewarding for the student. The rewards can be gained as a result of a teacher modifying activities in this setting. Specific physical education teaching strategies for assisting children with Dysgraphia can easily be implemented as noted in this article. References Cleveland Clinic. (2022, June 15). Dysgraphia: What It Is, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment . Cleveland Clinic. https:// my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/23294-dysgraphia Chung, P. J., Patel, D. R., & Nizami, I. (2020). Disorder of written expression and dysgraphia: Definition, diagnosis, and management. Translational Pediatrics , 9 (S1), S46–S54. https://doi.org/10.21037/tp.2019.11.01‌ Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). (2017). Speech or language . Sec. 300.8 (c) (11), https://sites.ed.gov/ idea/regs/b/a/300.8/c/11 Kovar, S., Combs, C., Campbell, K., Napper-Owen, G., & Worrell, V. (2012). Elementary classroom teachers as movement educators (4th Ed.). McGraw-Hill: Boston, MA. LAD, 2023 Dysgraphia – Learning disabilities association of America . Learning Disabilities Association of America. Retrieved October 24, 2023, from https://ldaamerica.org/ disabilities/dysgraphia/ National Institute of Neurological Disorders. (2023, January 20). Dysgraphia | National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke . Www.ninds.nih.gov. https://www.ninds.nih.gov/ health-information/disorders/dysgraphia#:~:text=The%20 cause%20of%20the%20disorder

• Physical education teachers can have students do activities surrounding weekly spelling words. can have students do activi ties that involve quick hand motions. Activities could in clude, passing balls in a fast sequence • Physical education teachers can have students juggling scarves which requires fast hand motions. Students can move on to juggling balls when ready. can have students arrange the gym based on their les son plans. As an example, a teacher can have the “map” of where stations need to be set up. Students will arrange the gym according to the plan • Physical education teachers can draw the steps of a skill in sequence such as looking at the target, stepping, with the opposite foot, releasing the ball close to the ground, and following through. This can be done before or after per forming the skill. • Physical education teachers • Physical education teachers

Efficiency and speed of

writing

Functioning as far as planning and organizing

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Tactical Games Approach in Physical Education (Reprint from Spring 2022) Seungyeon Park , Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Health, Physical Education & Exercise Science Department , Norfolk State University Ann-Catherine Sullivan , Ph.D., CAPE, COI, Department of the Health, Physical Education & Exercise Science Department, Norfolk State University

Introduction What is the best pedagogical approach in order to instruct students in physical education (PE) settings? This question has two folds as teaching and learning. Depending on how physical educators utilize their pedagogical approach in PE settings, students can maximize their understanding and then participate in sports with a great amount of motivation. Experts have diverse perspectives about their practices and pedagogical approach in relation to teaching and learning in PE. There is a notion that tactics are a more integral part for promoting learning of students in PE. In traditional teaching methods, sports skills taught in isolated environment cannot easily transferred into game and sports performance . With this most concerned critic in traditional teaching method, there were comparatively recent teaching approaches as (1) Teaching Games for Understanding and (2) Tactical Games approach (TGA). These two models actively employ a modified game playing to promote student’s understanding in relation to sports and game playing. TGA is more emphasizing to teach tactics to perform sports effectively. TGA is both student-centered and subject matter pedagogical approach because it enables students to learn and then apply those skills in the particular tactical situations; students will have ‘tactical awareness’ which is about knowing what they are required to do in the specific playing situations in sports (Gr haigne et al, 1999). The rationale is that teaching sports with TGA enables students have more excitement by having them to playing game, develop their knowledge and its natural transference into sport performance throughout a series of questions in developmentally assigned game Mitchell et al, 2021). Additionally, there are four different categories of sports which can be considered with TGA use when teaching sports for students; net/wall, invasion, target and striking/fielding category (Almond, 2015). Sports in the same sport category will share similarities. With the same ‘tactical awareness’, students will be more likely to transfer their knowledge into one another sports during the game situations. For instance, ‘tactical awareness’ in invasion games such as soccer, football and team-handball include examples such as ‘maintaining possession of the ball’, ‘attacking the goal’, ‘creating space’ and ‘defending space’ under the situations of off-the-ball movements and on-the-ball-skills. There are even benefits of dividing sport activities into the same specific category, we need to be aware that different sports in the same category also will require different aspects hugely which are more related to skills rather than strategies. As an example, Diagram 1 describes tactical awareness for both on-the object and off-the-object movement in ultimate frisbee and team

handball. With this identifiable ‘ tactical awareness’ , physical educators should reflect different level of ‘tactical complexity’ of the game or sports for their students assuming that there is different skill level of learners (Mitchell et al, 2021).

Diagram 1 . Maintaining Possession in Ultimate Frisbee and Team Handball.

Conceptual Framework of Tactical Games Approach PE teachers can identify the most important tactical problems in their sports lesson unit. First step for TGA is providing modified game playing practice for students to promote student’s decision-making in given tactical awareness situations. One of considerations is level of tactical complexity when identifying tactical awareness. There are diverse learners in relation to skill level and understanding of sports performance in PE classes. Next, students are asked to answer about the modified game situations and these parts are specifically linked to student’s understanding. These are all related to psychomotor (on and off the-ball movement), cognitive (tactical awareness and decision making) and affective domain (communication skill and sport person-ship). At the next level, students can be introduced into modified game playing practice again followed by next level game playing to prove and show improved skill level as well as reinforcing problem-solving and decision-making (Mitchell et al, 2021). Review of Tactical Games Approach Literature A number of research studies have been conducted to examine the effectiveness of TGA with respect to learning games for school-aged children. However, there was little attention on application outside of the school context or in a setting for adult population. This section will briefly report the effectiveness of TGA for school-aged children as an instructional model and

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then discuss more about TGA research focused on the adult population. TGA Research and Student Outcomes . Numerous research studies have indicated the effectiveness of TGA compared to the traditional teaching method (Carpenter, 2010; Chatzipanteli et al., 2016; Gouveia et al., 2019; Harvey et al., 2015; Hodges et al., 2018; Tjeerdsma et al., 1996). Gouveia et al (2019) examined the TGA model with a technique-based approach. There were three variables including movement pattern, decision making, and performance in basketball, team handball and soccer of invasion game category. These variables were assessed during game playing in secondary level PE classes. TGA was more effective for students in that they improved on the-ball movement which required better decision making and also participated more in “gamy” playing. There was a positive relationship using TGA in the secondary PE settings. Students engaged more in physical activity (PA). According to Hodges et al. (2018), the use of TGA lessons in secondary level PE classes, students had more intense levels of PA time which were almost close to nationally recommended PA levels in PE. According to Centers for Disease Control (2010), it is recommended that school-aged children should have more than 60 minutes, moderate to vigorous PA, at least 3 days a week. Moreover, students showed improved gameplay performance in this study (Hodges et al, 2018). In secondary level PE classes, students preferred learning new sport skills based on TGA (Tjeerdsma et al, 1996). In the study, perceptions, values and beliefs of participants were measured using survey and interview. All the students in the study could improve their skill level and had more motivation when they learned badminton in PE using TGA. Particularly, badminton units using TGA were effective curriculum model in PE when students had 6-week sessions rather than 3-week sessions (Tjeerdsma et al, 1996). Elementary level students can improve their learning of sports in their PE classes with a basis of TGA. Teachers can have an important role in planning and implementing their PE classes and connecting their lesson plans using TGA. This can greatly influence a student’s positive learning experience. In addition, participants showed more excitement and improved skill performance without being affected by gender, class size, and the sport unit within ultimate frisbee and basketball in this study (Carpenter, 2010). In the research conducted by Chatzipanteli et al. (2016), researchers measured metacognitive behavior, cognitive and motor skills learning in elementary PE volleyball units based on TGA. They found TGA was effective showing that participants in the study were more active and improved level of tactical awareness. In elementary and middle school level PE classes, students showed a great amount of excitement when learning basketball with a basis of TGA (Harvey et al., 2015); especially, with using contextualized game situations embedded in TGA. There was a long-term effect in that students showed more accountability and self-determined motivation by engaging in modified game playing in this study. As well, students were more likely to attain

the current PA guidelines when they taught PA using TGA in their PE classes. There was the previous study which investigated the perception of pre-service PE teachers (n=28) regarding 8-week tennis lessons using TGA (Gubacs-Collins, 2007). In-service PE teachers in this study responded that TGA in their tennis lessons were effective to improve content knowledge. Particularly, in-service PE teachers expressed that questions and answers of TGA approach were effective when they instructed their students. Teachers expressed that teaching with TGA was helpful. It allowed them to reflect upon their teaching practice although they required time to adjust planning and implementing TGA in the first phase. Participated students (n=18) in tennis lessons were interviewed in the study and they described their experience as meaningful in that they can learn skills and tactical knowledge in the specific context of game playing. The Q & A section was practical for student’s cognitive learning and providing corrective feedback. Additionally, both teachers and student participants expressed they were excited in TGA based lessons. Butler (1996) interviewed pre-service teachers (n=10) to explore their perception regarding TGA. The study showed teachers had a sportive view regarding using TGA in that children participating in the study increased their understanding, game playing time and interaction with peers. Likewise, the study by Gubacs-Collins (2007), interviewed teachers described TGA was an effective tool for their PE classes. At the same time, study participants expressed that the initial phase of TGA were the most difficult step. To prevent those difficulties, there should be a careful planning and implementing when using TGA in PE classes. In summary, researchers have reported the effectiveness of TGA in terms of motivation, understanding, and increase level of engagement and PA level of students across elementary to secondary level of PE classes. Among reviewed studies, two studies explored preservice PETE teacher’s experience connecting to implementation of TGA. PETE candidates were positive about TGA, especially about the Q & A part and reported TGA as effective for understanding and social interaction while emphasized the importance of planning and implementing TGA particularly for the initial steps (Butler, 1996; Gubacs-Collins, 2007). TGA Research for Adult Population . TGA research has mostly been conducted across the elementary and secondary school aged population in PE classes. Even though research is limited, several studies proved the effectiveness of TGA for adult population to teach sports and game playing. Dorak et al. (2018) compared TGA and direct instruction targeting college level students in their 12-week handball training. They measured cognitive, and psychomotor domain using surveys and assessed sport performance with Game Performance Assessment Instrument (GPAI; Mitchell et al, 2021) of TGA. At the end of the training, interviews were conducted to explore participant’s experience regarding their psychomotor,

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